Content Validation of the Athletic Training Milestones: A Report from the Association for Athletic Training Education Research Network.

The Athletic Training Milestones were developed as a comprehensive framework to assess athletic trainers' knowledge, skill, and behavior acquisition across the continuum of athletic training practice. However, without established content validity, it is unclear whether the Athletic Training Milestones can be used effectively as a clinical evaluation and research tool to evaluate competence and performance across multiple users and sites. We conducted a highly conservative content validity index (CVI) with data from 12 content experts. Our findings revealed an extremely high overall scale CVI of 0.99, and CVI scores of the 28 individual subcompetency items assessed ranged from 0.83 to 1.00. For the athletic training profession to truly embrace competency-based evaluation and performance assessments, we need a highly valid and comprehensive instrument, such as the Athletic Training Milestones.

The Critical Need for Advanced Training in Electronic Records Use: Implications for Clinical Practice, Education, and the Advancement of Athletic Training.

CONTEXT: The effective use of electronic records (ie, electronic health records or electronic medical records) is essential to professional initiatives and the overall advancement of the athletic training profession. However, evidence suggests that comprehensive patient care documentation and widespread use of electronic records are still limited in athletic training. The lack of formal training and education for clinicians and students is often cited as a primary barrier to electronic record use. Other health care disciplines have used academic electronic health record (AEHR) systems to address these barriers with promising results. OBJECTIVES: To identify common challenges associated with the effective use of electronic records in clinical practice, discuss how an AEHR system can address these challenges and encourage more effective use of electronic records, and describe strategies for deploying AEHRs in the athletic training profession. DESCRIPTION: The AEHR is an electronic records system specifically designed for educational use to support simulation learning among all types of learners (eg, practicing clinicians, students). Mimicking the form and function of an electronic health record, the AEHR offers various educational tasks, including patient care documentation projects, critical reviews of standardized patient cases, and assessments of patient care data for quality improvement efforts. CLINICAL AND RESEARCH ADVANTAGES: Recent evidence suggests that the use of an AEHR can improve knowledge and enhance skills. Specifically, AEHR use has been associated with enhanced attitudes toward electronic health record technology, increased informatics competencies, and improved documentation skills. Also, the use of an AEHR has been associated with improved critical thinking and decision-making skills. This tool appears to be valuable for health professions education, and athletic training stands to benefit from its use to better train and upskill clinicians and students alike for clinical practice. Although the implementation of an AEHR will require much time and large-scale coordinated efforts, it will be a worthy investment to address current challenges and advance the athletic training profession.

Greenhead (Tabanus nigrovittatus) Wolbachia and Its Microbiome: A Preliminary Study.

Endosymbiotic Wolbachia bacteria are known to influence the host physiology, microbiota composition, and dissemination of pathogens. We surveyed a population of Tabanus nigrovittatus, commonly referred to as "greenheads," from Crane Beach (Ipswich, MA, USA) for the presence of the alphaproteobacterial symbiont Wolbachia. We studied the COI (mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase) marker gene to evaluate the phylogenetic diversity of the studied specimens. The DNA sequences show strong similarity (between 99.9 and 98%) among the collected specimens but lower similarity to closely related entries in the NCBI database (only between 96.3 and 94.7%), suggesting a more distant relatedness. Low levels of Wolbachia presence necessitated a nested PCR approach, and using 5 markers (ftsZ, fbpA, dnaA, coxA, and gatB), we determined that two recognized "supergroups" of Wolbachia species were represented in the studied specimens, members of clades A and B. Using next-generation sequencing, we also surveyed the insect gut microbiomes of a subset of flies, using Illumina and PacBio 16S rRNA gene sequencing with barcoded primers. The composition of Proteobacteria also varied from fly to fly, with components belonging to Gammaproteobacteria making up the largest percentage of organisms (30 to 70%) among the microbiome samples. Most of the samples showed the presence of Spiroplasma, a member of the phylum Mollicutes, although the frequency of its presence was variable, ranging from 2 to 57%. Another noteworthy bacterial phylum consistently identified was Firmicutes, though the read abundances were typically below 10%. Of interest is an association between Wolbachia presence and higher Alphaproteobacteria representation in the microbiomes, suggesting that the presence of Wolbachia affects the host microbiome. IMPORTANCE Tabanus nigrovittatus greenhead populations contain two supergroups of Wolbachia endosymbionts, members of supergroups A and B. Analysis of the greenhead microbiome using next-generation sequencing revealed that the majority of bacterial species detected belonged to Gammaproteobacteria, with most of the samples also showing the presence of Spiroplasma, a member of the Mollicutes phylum also known to infect insects. An association between Wolbachia presence and higher Alphaproteobacteria representation in the microbiomes suggests that Wolbachia presence affects the host microbiome composition.

Muscle insulin-like growth factor-I modulates murine craniofacial bone growth.

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) is essential for muscle and bone development and a primary mediator of growth hormone (GH) actions. While studies have elucidated the importance of IGF-I specifically in muscle or bone development, few studies to date have evaluated the relationship between muscle and bone modulated by IGF-I in vivo, during post-natal growth. Mice with muscle-specific IGF-I overexpression (mIgf1+/+) were utilised to determine IGF-I- and muscle-mass-dependent effects on craniofacial skeleton development during post-natal growth. mIgf1+/+ mice displayed accelerated craniofacial bone growth when compared to wild-type animals. Virus-mediated expression of IGF-I targeting the masseter was performed to determine if post-natal modulation of IGF-I altered mandibular structures. Increased IGF-I in the masseter affected the mandibular base plane angle in a lateral manner, increasing the width of the mandible. At the cellular level, increased muscle IGF-I also accelerated cartilage thickness in the mandibular condyle. Importantly, mandibular length changes associated with increased IGF-I were not present in mice with genetic inhibition of muscle IGF-I receptor activity. These results demonstrated that muscle IGF-I could indirectly affect craniofacial growth through IGF-I-dependent increases in muscle hypertrophy. These findings have clinical implications when considering IGF-I as a therapeutic strategy for craniofacial disorders.

The Eagle effect in the Wolbachia-worm symbiosis.

BACKGROUND: Onchocerciasis (river blindness) and lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) are two human neglected tropical diseases that cause major disabilities. Mass administration of drugs targeting the microfilarial stage has reduced transmission and eliminated these diseases in several countries but a macrofilaricidal drug that kills or sterilizes the adult worms is critically needed to eradicate the diseases. The causative agents of onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis are filarial worms that harbor the endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia. Because filarial worms depend on Wolbachia for reproduction and survival, drugs targeting Wolbachia hold great promise as a means to eliminate these diseases. METHODS: To better understand the relationship between Wolbachia and its worm host, adult Brugia pahangi were exposed to varying concentrations of doxycycline, minocycline, tetracycline and rifampicin in vitro and assessed for Wolbachia numbers and worm motility. Worm motility was monitored using the Worminator system, and Wolbachia titers were assessed by qPCR of the single copy gene wsp from Wolbachia and gst from Brugia to calculate IC50s and in time course experiments. Confocal microscopy was also used to quantify Wolbachia located at the distal tip region of worm ovaries to assess the effects of antibiotic treatment in this region of the worm where Wolbachia are transmitted vertically to the microfilarial stage. RESULTS: Worms treated with higher concentrations of antibiotics had higher Wolbachia titers, i.e. as antibiotic concentrations increased there was a corresponding increase in Wolbachia titers. As the concentration of antibiotic increased, worms stopped moving and never recovered despite maintaining Wolbachia titers comparable to controls. Thus, worms were rendered moribund by the higher concentrations of antibiotics but Wolbachia persisted suggesting that these antibiotics may act directly on the worms at high concentration. Surprisingly, in contrast to these results, antibiotics given at low concentrations reduced Wolbachia titers. CONCLUSION: Wolbachia in B. pahangi display a counterintuitive dose response known as the "Eagle effect." This effect in Wolbachia suggests a common underlying mechanism that allows diverse bacterial and fungal species to persist despite exposure to high concentrations of antimicrobial compounds. To our knowledge this is the first report of this phenomenon occurring in an intracellular endosymbiont, Wolbachia, in its filarial host.

The Wolbachia Symbiont: Here, There and Everywhere.

Wolbachia symbionts, first observed in the 1920s, are now known to be present in about 30-70% of tested arthropod species, in about half of tested filarial nematodes (including the majority of human filarial nematodes), and some plant-parasitic nematodes. In arthropods, they are generally viewed as parasites while in nematodes they appear to be mutualists although this demarcation is not absolute. Their presence in arthropods generally leads to reproductive anomalies, while in nematodes, they are generally required for worm development and reproduction. In mosquitos, Wolbachia inhibit RNA viral infections, leading to populational reductions in human RNA virus pathogens, whereas in filarial nematodes, their requirement for worm fertility and survival has been channeled into their use as drug targets for filariasis control. While much more research on these ubiquitous symbionts is needed, they are viewed as playing significant roles in biological processes, ranging from arthropod speciation to human health.

Diminutive, degraded but dissimilar: Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes do not conform to a single paradigm.

Wolbachia are alpha-proteobacteria symbionts infecting a large range of arthropod species and two different families of nematodes. Interestingly, these endosymbionts are able to induce diverse phenotypes in their hosts: they are reproductive parasites within many arthropods, nutritional mutualists within some insects and obligate mutualists within their filarial nematode hosts. Defining Wolbachia 'species' is controversial and so they are commonly classified into 17 different phylogenetic lineages, termed supergroups, named A-F, H-Q and S. However, available genomic data remain limited and not representative of the full Wolbachia diversity; indeed, of the 24 complete genomes and 55 draft genomes of Wolbachia available to date, 84 % belong to supergroups A and B, exclusively composed of Wolbachia from arthropods. For the current study, we took advantage of a recently developed DNA-enrichment method to produce four complete genomes and two draft genomes of Wolbachia from filarial nematodes. Two complete genomes, wCtub and wDcau, are the smallest Wolbachia genomes sequenced to date (863 988 bp and 863 427 bp, respectively), as well as the first genomes representing supergroup J. These genomes confirm the validity of this supergroup, a controversial clade due to weaknesses of the multilocus sequence typing approach. We also produced the first draft Wolbachia genome from a supergroup F filarial nematode representative (wMhie), two genomes from supergroup D (wLsig and wLbra) and the complete genome of wDimm from supergroup C. Our new data confirm the paradigm of smaller Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes containing low levels of transposable elements and the absence of intact bacteriophage sequences, unlike many Wolbachia from arthropods, where both are more abundant. However, we observe differences among the Wolbachia genomes from filarial nematodes: no global co-evolutionary pattern, strong synteny between supergroup C and supergroup J Wolbachia, and more transposable elements observed in supergroup D Wolbachia compared to the other supergroups. Metabolic pathway analysis indicates several highly conserved pathways (haem and nucleotide biosynthesis, for example) as opposed to more variable pathways, such as vitamin B biosynthesis, which might be specific to certain host-symbiont associations. Overall, there appears to be no single Wolbachia-filarial nematode pattern of co-evolution or symbiotic relationship.

Pseudoscorpion Wolbachia symbionts: diversity and evidence for a new supergroup S.

BACKGROUND: Wolbachia are the most widely spread endosymbiotic bacteria, present in a wide variety of insects and two families of nematodes. As of now, however, relatively little genomic data has been available. The Wolbachia symbiont can be parasitic, as described for many arthropod systems, an obligate mutualist, as in filarial nematodes or a combination of both in some organisms. They are currently classified into 16 monophyletic lineage groups ("supergroups"). Although the nature of these symbioses remains largely unknown, expanded Wolbachia genomic data will contribute to understanding their diverse symbiotic mechanisms and evolution. RESULTS: This report focuses on Wolbachia infections in three pseudoscorpion species infected by two distinct groups of Wolbachia strains, based upon multi-locus phylogenies. Geogarypus minor harbours wGmin and Chthonius ischnocheles harbours wCisc, both closely related to supergroup H, while Atemnus politus harbours wApol, a member of a novel supergroup S along with Wolbachia from the pseudoscorpion Cordylochernes scorpioides (wCsco). Wolbachia supergroup S is most closely related to Wolbachia supergroups C and F. Using target enrichment by hybridization with Wolbachia-specific biotinylated probes to capture large fragments of Wolbachia DNA, we produced two draft genomes of wApol. Annotation of wApol highlights presence of a biotin operon, which is incomplete in many sequenced Wolbachia genomes. CONCLUSIONS: The present study highlights at least two symbiont acquisition events among pseudoscorpion species. Phylogenomic analysis indicates that the Wolbachia from Atemnus politus (wApol), forms a separate supergroup ("S") with the Wolbachia from Cordylochernes scorpioides (wCsco). Interestingly, the biotin operon, present in wApol, appears to have been horizontally transferred multiple times along Wolbachia evolutionary history.

A Meta-Analysis of Wolbachia Transcriptomics Reveals a Stage-Specific Wolbachia Transcriptional Response Shared Across Different Hosts.

Wolbachia is a genus containing obligate, intracellular endosymbionts with arthropod and nematode hosts. Numerous studies have identified differentially expressed transcripts in Wolbachia endosymbionts that potentially inform the biological interplay between these endosymbionts and their hosts, albeit with discordant results. Here, we re-analyze previously published Wolbachia RNA-Seq transcriptomics data sets using a single workflow consisting of the most up-to-date algorithms and techniques, with the aim of identifying trends or patterns in the pan-Wolbachia transcriptional response. We find that data from one of the early studies in filarial nematodes did not allow for robust conclusions about Wolbachia differential expression with these methods, suggesting the original interpretations should be reconsidered. Across datasets analyzed with this unified workflow, there is a general lack of global gene regulation with the exception of a weak transcriptional response resulting in the upregulation of ribosomal proteins in early larval stages. This weak response is observed across diverse Wolbachia strains from both nematode and insect hosts suggesting a potential pan-Wolbachia transcriptional response during host development that diverged more than 700 million years ago.

Author Correction: Large Enriched Fragment Targeted Sequencing (LEFT-SEQ) Applied to Capture of Wolbachia Genomes.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Patient, Injury, Assessment, and Treatment Characteristics and Return-to-Play Timelines After Sport-Related Concussion: An Investigation from the Athletic Training Practice-Based Research Network.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the patient, injury, assessment and treatment characteristics, as well as return-to-play timelines and clinical findings at discharge for adolescent patients after sport-related concussion. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of electronic medical records. SETTING: Athletic training facilities of secondary school members of the Athletic Training Practice-Based Research Network (AT-PBRN). PATIENTS: In total, 1886 patient records were reviewed. [1204 (63.8%) male, 682 (36.2%) female, age = 15.3 ± 1.9 years, height = 169.5 ± 13.5 cm, mass = 70.3 ± 17.0 kg]. Patients were diagnosed with a concussion by an athletic trainer or team/directing physician. INTERVENTIONS: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Descriptive analysis of patient, injury, assessment, treatment, and participation status characteristics, as well as discharge information. RESULTS: Injury demographic forms were completed for 1886 concussion cases. A concussion-specific evaluation form was completed for 55.9% (n = 1054) of cases. Treatment documentation was completed on 829 patients (44.0% of initial documented cases). Discharge forms were completed for 750 patients (40.0% of initial documented cases). Most cases were coded as 850.9-Concussion (85.5%, n = 642) and occurred during an in-season game (49.4%, n = 308). Time lost from competition was 24.9 ± 39.9 days. CONCLUSIONS: Most concussion cases documented in this study were not on-field emergencies, as indicated by their normal clinical examinations and the lack of immediate referral to an emergency department. However, certain aspects of the clinical examination were often not assessed during the initial evaluation. These findings describe concussion assessment and recovery in adolescents and reinforce the need for a standardized approach to concussion assessment and appropriate documentation.

Large Enriched Fragment Targeted Sequencing (LEFT-SEQ) Applied to Capture of Wolbachia Genomes.

Symbiosis is a major force of evolutionary change, influencing virtually all aspects of biology, from population ecology and evolution to genomics and molecular/biochemical mechanisms of development and reproduction. A remarkable example is Wolbachia endobacteria, present in some parasitic nematodes and many arthropod species. Acquisition of genomic data from diverse Wolbachia clades will aid in the elucidation of the different symbiotic mechanisms(s). However, challenges of de novo assembly of Wolbachia genomes include the presence in the sample of host DNA: nematode/vertebrate or insect. We designed biotinylated probes to capture large fragments of Wolbachia DNA for sequencing using PacBio technology (LEFT-SEQ: Large Enriched Fragment Targeted Sequencing). LEFT-SEQ was used to capture and sequence four Wolbachia genomes: the filarial nematode Brugia malayi, wBm, (21-fold enrichment), Drosophila mauritiana flies (2 isolates), wMau (11-fold enrichment), and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, wAlbB (200-fold enrichment). LEFT-SEQ resulted in complete genomes for wBm and for wMau. For wBm, 18 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), relative to the wBm reference, were identified and confirmed by PCR. A limit of LEFT-SEQ is illustrated by the wAlbB genome, characterized by a very high level of insertion sequences elements (ISs) and DNA repeats, for which only a 20-contig draft assembly was achieved.

Development of a High-Throughput Cytometric Screen to Identify Anti- Wolbachia Compounds: The Power of Public-Private Partnership.

The Anti- Wolbachia (A·WOL) consortium at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) has partnered with the Global High-Throughput Screening (HTS) Centre at AstraZeneca to create the first anthelmintic HTS for neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). The A·WOL consortium aims to identify novel macrofilaricidal drugs targeting the essential bacterial symbiont ( Wolbachia) of the filarial nematodes causing onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis. Working in collaboration, we have validated a robust high-throughput assay capable of identifying compounds that selectively kill Wolbachia over the host insect cell. We describe the development and validation process of this complex, phenotypic high-throughput assay and provide an overview of the primary outputs from screening the AstraZeneca library of 1.3 million compounds.

Symbiosis Comes of age at the 10th Biennial Meeting of Wolbachia Researchers.

Wolbachia pipientis is an alpha-proteobacterial, obligate intracellular microbe and arguably the most successful infection on our planet, colonizing 40-60% of insect species. Wolbachia are also present in most, but not all, filarial nematodes where they are obligate mutualists and are the targets for anti-filarial drug discovery. Although Wolbachia are related to important human pathogens they do not infect mammals, but instead are well known for their reproductive manipulations of insect populations, inducing the following phenotypes: male-killing, feminization, parthenogenesis induction, or cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI). The most common of these, CI, results in a sperm-egg incompatibility and increases the relative fecundity of infected females in a population. In the last decade, Wolbachia have also been shown to provide a benefit to insects, where the infection can inhibit RNA virus replication within the host. Wolbachia cannot be cultivated outside of host cells and no genetic tools are available in the symbiont, limiting approaches available to its study. This means that many questions fundamental to our understanding of Wolbachia basic biology remained unknown for decades. The tenth biennial international Wolbachia conference, "Wolbachia Evolution, Ecology, Genomics and Cell Biology: A Chronicle of the Most Ubiquitous Symbiont", was held on June 17-22, 2018, Salem, MA USA. In the review below we highlight the new science presented at the meeting, link it to prior efforts to answer these questions across the Wolbachia genus, and the importance to the field of symbiosis. The topics covered in this review are based on the presentations at the conference.

Industrial scale high-throughput screening delivers multiple fast acting macrofilaricides.

Nematodes causing lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis rely on their bacterial endosymbiont, Wolbachia, for survival and fecundity, making Wolbachia a promising therapeutic target. Here we perform a high-throughput screen of AstraZeneca's 1.3 million in-house compound library and identify 5 novel chemotypes with faster in vitro kill rates (<2 days) than existing anti-Wolbachia drugs that cure onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis. This industrial scale anthelmintic neglected tropical disease (NTD) screening campaign is the result of a partnership between the Anti-Wolbachia consortium (A∙WOL) and AstraZeneca. The campaign was informed throughout by rational prioritisation and triage of compounds using cheminformatics to balance chemical diversity and drug like properties reducing the chance of attrition from the outset. Ongoing development of these multiple chemotypes, all with superior time-kill kinetics than registered antibiotics with anti-Wolbachia activity, has the potential to improve upon the current therapeutic options and deliver improved, safer and more selective macrofilaricidal drugs.

Clinical Breathing Mechanics Differ Based on Test and Position.

CONTEXT: Altered diaphragm function is linked to decreased core stabilization, postural changes, and decreased function. Two clinical tests used to assess breathing are the Hi-lo and lateral rib expansion (LRE) tests. It is currently unknown how breathing classification based on these tests differ and how their results are affected by varying test positions. OBJECTIVE: To compare the results of breathing tests when conducted in varying test positions. DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. SETTING: University laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 50 healthy adults (females 31 and males 29; age 29.3 [4.1] y; height 170.0 [10.4] cm; weight70.7 [15.1] kg). INTERVENTION(S): Hi-lo and LRE tests in supine, seated, standing, and half-kneeling body positions. All tests were recorded and later scored by a single examiner. A generalized estimating equations approach with breathing test and body position as factors was used for analysis. Pairwise comparison with Bonferroni correction was used to adjust for multiple tests. Statistical significance was set at P = .05, 2 tailed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Hi-lo and LRE tests were scored based on the presence or absence of abdominal excursion, LRE, and superior rib cage migration. Following scoring, results were classified as functional or dysfunctional based on observation of these criteria. RESULTS: A significant breathing test × test position interaction (P < .01) was noted, as well as main effects for test (P < .01) and test position (P < .01). All Hi-lo test positions identified significantly more dysfunctional breathers in positions of increased stability demand (P < .01), except between standing and half-kneeling positions (P = .52). In the LRE test, all positions were similar (P > .99) except for half-kneeling, which was significantly different from all other positions (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: The Hi-lo test and LRE tests assess different breathing mechanics. Clinicians should use these tests in combination to gain a comprehensive understanding of a person's breathing pattern. The Hi-lo test should be administered in multiple testing positions.

Overview of Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies.

High throughput DNA sequencing methodology (next generation sequencing; NGS) has rapidly evolved over the past 15 years and new methods are continually being commercialized. As the technology develops, so do increases in the number of corresponding applications for basic and applied science. The purpose of this review is to provide a compendium of NGS methodologies and associated applications. Each brief discussion is followed by web links to the manufacturer and/or web-based visualizations. Keyword searches, such as with Google, may also provide helpful internet links and information. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Is There a Relationship Between the Functional Movement Screen, Star Excursion Balance Test, and Balance Error Scoring System?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate associations between the Functional Movement Screen (FMS), Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT), and Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) scores. DESIGN: Correlational. SETTING: College athletic training facilities. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-two intercollegiate athletes (men = 36 and women = 16) representing 8 sports and cleared for unrestricted sport participation. INTERVENTIONS: Participants completed the FMS, SEBT, and BESS, in random order, during 1 testing session. Testing order was randomized to control for fatigue and learning effects. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Composite and item scores for the FMS, SEBT, and BESS. RESULTS: A fair, negative correlation was found between FMS asymmetry and SEBT composite (r = -0.31, P = 0.03) scores. Fair, positive correlations were reported for FMS rotary stability task and SEBT anterior (r = 0.37-0.41, P ≤ 0.007) and posteromedial (r = 0.31, P = 0.03) reaches. Fair, negative correlations were reported for FMS deep squat and BESS single-leg firm (r = -0.33, P = 0.02), double-leg foam (r = -0.34, P = 0.02) and tandem foam (r = -0.40, P = 0.003), FMS inline lunge and BESS single-leg firm (r = -0.39, P = 0.004), FMS trunk stability pushup and tandem foam (r = -0.31, P = 0.025), and FMS composite and BESS single-leg firm (r = -0.37, P = 0.007). Little-to-no correlations were reported for remaining comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that each instrument provides distinct information about function, with only small areas of overlap. Associations between the FMS asymmetry score and SEBT composite score may indicate a relationship between movement asymmetry and postural stability. Associations between the FMS deep squat and BESS foam tasks may be related to underlying neuromuscular control factors.

Tackling Hypotheticals in Helminth Genomes.

Advancements in genome sequencing have led to the rapid accumulation of uncharacterized 'hypothetical proteins' in the public databases. Here we provide a community perspective and some best-practice approaches for the accurate functional annotation of uncharacterized genomic sequences.